GENERAL PROSE
In the period of
Dr. Johnson, profound changes are taking place in the spirit of English
society. People of age wanted something more natural and spontaneous in thought
and language. People were quickened into fresh activity by the renaissance of
the feelings. This IS an Important fact in the history of this period of
transition. The emotions, long repressed, were reinstated. We see this in the
Case of religion. In Pope's time, contemporary society, had been unspiritual.
In the great evangelistic revival led by Wesley and Whitefield, the old
formality was swept away and a mighty tide of spiritual energy poured into the
church and among the masses of the people. The evangelists made their appeal
directly to the emotional nature. Handel's "Messiah" foretold the
coming change. The spread of the humanitarian spirit quickens the rapid growth
of democracy. People were familiar with the notions of liberty equality and the
rights of man. French writer Rousseau's slogan 'Back to Nature' sent a strange
thrill through the whole European World. There is Revolution in Literature too.
There was a steady triumph of the new. It marked out the main lines of its
evolution.
Dr. Johnson: He was the greatest English man of letters
between Pope and Wordsworth. He was born in Lichfield in 1709. His father was a
book seller. He was always sick. He was a pessimist. He did some translation
for a Birmingham publisher. He married a widow twenty years elder to him. He
had a compamon by name David Garrick, who was the greatest actor of his time.
During the first few years, he produced. The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749) and
a tragedy called Irene (1749), About 1090 papers were contributed to ' 'The
Idler" (1758 to 1760). "The periodical Rambler" appeared on
Tuesdays and Saturdays. A significant development in the later half of the 18th
century was the creation of the "Magazine". It was an anthology of
interesting and significant material which had already appeared in recent
newspapers and periodicals. One such magazine was Edward Cave's monthly
"The Gentleman's Magazine", 'The Magazine" was in course of time
more and more devoted to the criticism of books. Dr. Johnson had the scholar's
pride as well as the scholar's accuracy. He wanted to say, what he had to say,
in the best possible words. He wanted to convey his meaning exactly and
correctly to his readers. An inexact word never escapes. Sincerity becomes the
leading feature of his writing. Leslie Stephen points out, "he wanted to
keep his style above the "grossness" of common style above the
"grossness" of common talk; he never wrote 'below refercement"
John Bailey points out, "he influenced even men so great as Gibbon and
young Ruskin, and women so brilliant as Fanny Burney".
Dr. Johnson was
occupied for eight years by an immense task "A Dictionary of English
Language". In his dictionary, he not only defined the words but also
illustrate his definitions by quotations taken from the whole range of English
Literature. His work laid foundation for English lexicography, "The
Dictionary" made him independent. He received a pension of £ 300 a year.
He became the acknowledged Dictator. Smollett called him, "The Great
charm' of literature. In his club, he was surrounded by Goldsmith, Sir Joshua
Reynolds the great painter, Bukr, Garrick and Boswell. He published his
didactic tale, Rasselas in 1759, an edition of Shakespeare in 1765. and account
of his four to the Bebrides with Boswell under the title of "Journey to
the Western Islands of Scotland in 1775. He died in 1784 and was burned in
Westminster abbey. Macaulay said, "The memory of other authors is kept
alive by their works but the memory of Johnson keeps many of his works alive.
He lives in the pages of his biography by his hero-worshipping friend, James
Boswell. He was great both as a critic of literature and as a critic of life.
"Life", he declared, "is progress from want to want, not from
enjoyment to enjoyment. Throughout his life he made a most heroic fight against
the melancholy which was the cause of his ill-health. The steady courage of hrs
manhood pervades his work. The essence of his teaching is that we should face
the facts or existence honestly. "The Vanity of Himan Wishes and Rassales
show that he was he was saved from utter hopelessness by his strong religious
faith. As a prose writer, Dr. Johnson is known for his "Preface to his
Dictionary". His style, though vigorous and direct, is too heavy and
learned and is called ' 'Johnsonese". He used big words which require the
mouth of a giant to pronounce them. Goldsmith once remarked, "If you were
to make little fishes talk, they would talk like whales". His works have
great strength, nobility and dignity.
The Novel
Prose fiction in England before Richardson : The
novels firm establishment and popularity date from the age of Johnson. Novel
was the greatest achievement of that age. It was with Richardson that prose
fiction passed definitely into its modern form. Most of this fiction were
purely romantic like the works of Sidney, Lodge and Greene: or didactic like
the works of More Lyly and Bacon. Realism had been shown in the work of Nash.
French fashions were seen in English soil , AphraBehn and several other women
writers began to cultivate a form of story which was marked by brevity.
Historical Significance of the Novel : A new form of
literary art-the novel a sign that literature offered a fresh field in which
modem writers were able to work independently In the first place the popularity
of' the novel depended upon the growth of the reading public in which women
were becoming increasingly numerous, secondly the novel was a sign that
literature was beginning to outgrow the cramping limitations of classicism.
Richardson :
Samuel Richardson
1689-1761 sometimes referred to as the father of the English novel was a
printer. He became a novelist at the age of fifty. He began his career as a
novelist with the publication of his 'Pamela'. He regarded it as a new species
of writing. His aim was to turn young people away from the pomp and parade and
promote the cause of religion and virtue". Pamela"C arissa are models
of feminine virtue. While Sir Charles Grandison represents masculine virtue,
the method of telling his stories, is by way of letters. A letter is of the
nature of soliloquy is the great engine for self-revelation and analysis. As
letters are written at the very moment of excitement, we see the character to
its very core, in its true colours. This method has a number of advantages.
Richardson owes his
place in the history of the novel. His novels are of minute analysis. He lays
bare the very heart and soul of his characters. No detail escapes his eye or is
below his attention. It is the exact function of the microscope. The novel
Pamela tells of a young girl, a lady's maid, who has been tortured by the Son
of her mistress. The girl resists all this arts and tricks until at length his
heart being softened towards her he makes her his wife. As Saintsbury puts it
"Every flutter of Pamela's heart is faithfully registered" Johnson
was right in praising him "for his knowledge of the human heart". His
Successful novel is or the adventures of a young lady generally known as
Clarissa Harlowe and Sir. Charles Grandison. Clarissa is Richardson's
masterpiece. It gave him a European reputation It is regarded as one of the
greatest of 18th century novels, it also contain. Richardson most remarkable
character study of the scoundrel Love Lace, whose name became proverbial.
Richardson earned
the applause of his contemporaries for his moralities. He himself said that his
purpose as a novelist was to promote the cause of virtue and religion. In the
history of the English novel Richardson owes his high place for a number of
reasons.
(a) He enlarged the
knowledge of human nature through his minute Psycho — analysis of his
characters. His dialogues are much more important and have the animation and
liveliness of real conversation. Never had there been such dialogue before in
English fiction. His genius was rather feminine than masculine. His epistolary
method has its advantages in bringing us into intimate touch with the writers
themselves.
Fielding :
Henry Fielding was one of the greatest of the 18th century
novelists. He was a man of very different type. He had wide knowledge of life.
It was Sir Walter Scott who called him "The father of the English
novel" for some ten years before he took up the novel he had been busy
writing plays and this long training in the drama had taught him many valuable
lessons in the art of construction. His novels are novels of sentiment. There
is much minute Psycho-analysis. His works exhibit all the essential features of
a successful novel. He revolutionized the concept of plot construction. It is
from Fielding that we get for the first time a closely knit organic plot
Fielding is certainly the father of the novel of character. He peopled the
novel with a great crowd of lively and interesting characters and endowed them
with life and vitality. Hazlitt points out "He has brought together a
greater variety of character from common life marked with more distinct peculiarities
and without an atom of caricature. Fielding presents the picture of
contemporary life society dress habits and manners in his novels, Every aspect
of contemporary life has been presented with rare force and realism and this
makes "Tom Jones" and important social document. Here Fielding takes
an enormous canvas and crowds in with figures. His hero is a foundling who is
brought up in the west of England by a squire named Allworthy. The novel gives
the richest picture of English life. Fielding's third great novel 'Amelia'
appeared in 1751. In this novel the interest centres in the character of a
woman. The novel 'clarissa' tells of the courage and patience of a devoted wife
and of the ill-doings of her weak willed husband.
Fielding's realism marks a significant advance in the
history of the English novel. He went to "The Doom's Day Book of
Nature" for his subject and reproduce it faithfully and accurately. He was
the first English Novelist to localize his scene. He always makes the setting
recognizable. Fielding was the first to infuse the novel with an element of
humour. Hypocrisy and vice are the object of his satire. Fielding imparted to
the novel the dignity and attraction of pure literature. He is the first
theorist of the English novel. Through his theory of "The comic epic in
prose" Fielding secured dignity and recognition for the novel. Incidental
comments scattered all through "Joseph Andrews" and "Tom
Jones". They reveal the richness of his brain and thought. They make the
novel a social type by bringing the readers into contact with the rich social
circle of Fielding's friends. To him the novel was quite as much a form of art
as the epic or the drama.
Smollet.
Tobias Smollett 1721-1771 can be ranked with Richardson
and Fielding in the history of the 18th century novel. In early life Smollett
spent some years as surgeon on a man-of-war and gained knowledge of sea and
sailors. He settled in London. Medicine failing he turned to literature. The
success of Richardson and Fielding prompted him to try his hand in fiction and
he wrote half-a-dozen novels. The chief among them are (l) Roderick Random 1748
(2) Peregrine Pickle (1751) and (3) The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker (1771).
Smollett conceived the novel as ' 'a large diffused picture of life". His
stories are simply strings of adventures and Unity is given to them only by the
personality of the hero. His aim is to keep the readers interest alive by a
succession of incidents. His fertility of invention and animation are
remarkable, Smollett's novel method is a return to the picaresque tradition. A
picaresque novel is a Union of intrigue and adventure and Unity is provided by
the central figure. He is a novelist of Sea-life. In his novels we get the real
sea, a real ship, a real voyage and the real English Sailors. His descriptions
of Sea-life in his novels are vivid and realistic. His Sea-dogs are
unforgettable figures in literature. His familiarity with sea-life enabled him
to capture the very idom of Sea-language. Ship scenes in Roderick Random led to
drastic changes for the better in the condition of the novel service. Peregrine
Pickle is a great sea novel. It is remarkable for its sparkling wit. As
Saintsbury puts it 'Peregrine Pickle" can never be thrown to the wolves.
English literature cannot do without it.
Fierce satire is
one of the leading characteristics of Smollett's novels. As Cross points out,
he crowds his pages with well-known characters of his own time, usually for the
purpose of fierce satire." He is Swift without swifts clean and wide
vision. "Humphrey Clinker" is his masterpiece. The letter plan which
Smollett has used for this novel, enables him to supply deficiency in
characterization Characters in "Humphrey Clinker" come to life
through the letters which they receive from and write to each other.
Exaggeration or caricature is the very essence Of Smollett's art. Continuous
laughter is excited through various situations, His novel is remarkable for its
detailed descriptions of interior furniture decoration and accessories.
Smollett has
widened the scope or the English novel. He widened the appeal of the novel and
imparted to it immense variety by describing the life and manners or different
countries, As a Panoramic novelist, Smollett has never been surpassed. Smollett
is a caricaturist. Men in his novels constantly turn to insect or animals.
Smollett is a satirist and reformer. His aim is to paint the monstrous evils in
life in their true proportions and colours. He did his best to enlarge the
scope of fiction. He was the first novelist to exploit the national
peculiarities of Irish Scotch and Welsh.
Other novelists of the period :
Goldsmith was ahead
of most of the novelists of his time. Rev. Lawrence Sterne wrote "Life and
Opinions of TristramShandy" and "Gentleman" which appeared in 9
volumes from 1759 to 1767. He owes his rank as novelist to the wonderful power
of his character-drawing in the elder Shandy and his wife corporal Trim and
Uncle Toby. They are living figures in 18th century fiction. Henry Mackenzie
wrote "The man of feeling". It is one of the dampest books in English
literature. William Godwin wrote "Caleb Williams" or "Things as
They are Francis Burney laid the real foundation of the women's novel She wrote
"Evelina" or —The History of a Young Lady's Entrance into the
World" Johnson called her "little fanny- (24 Yrs) She was the founder
of the tea-table school of fiction Her 2nd book is "Cecilia"
The Revival of
Romance :
In the revival of
romance the letter writer Horace Walpole should be mentioned. He took up medievalism.
He bought a small house or villakin, near Twickenham and transformed it into a
miniature Gothic castle. He installed with great satisfaction his collection of
curiosities, art, treasures and stilts of armour and the statue which bleeds at
the nose. Byron called the novel ' 'The first romance in the language".
Clara Reeve's "Old English" is a Gothic story. Ann Radiffe wrote
'Romance of the Forest". "The mysteries of Udolpho and the
"Italian". Mathew Gregory Lewis wrote "Ambrosio" or 'The
Monk'. The novelists, in the age of Johnson, returned to the romantic middle
ages.
VERSE
General
Characteristics:
The history of our
late 18th century poetry is the history of a struggle between old and new. The
Age of Johnson in respect of its poetry is an age of modernism, transition, and
innovation. Classical poetry was the product of the intelligence and was
deficient in emotion and imagination.
It was town poetry.
It was lacking
romantic spirit.
It was formal and
artificial in style.
It has close
couplet.
On the other hand...
Romantic spirit led
to the growth of the sense of picturesque.
The Romantic spirit
received and this revival brought with it great changes in the temper of verse.
Efforts were taken
to introduce simple phrases and the language of nature.
Instead of close couplet, other forms of verse were used.
The Continuance of
the Augustan Tradition:
Both Johnson and
Goldsmith were strong conservatives in literary theory. In an epoch of change,
they held fast to the immediate past. Goldsmith was equally convinced that
"the writers of the Augustan age provided the true standard for future
limitation". Johnson's two chief poems "London" and 'The Vanity
of the Human Wishes" belong to the past generation. Goldsmith's two important
poems "The Traveler" and "The Deserted Village" are
didactic and written in the closed couplet.
The Reaction in
Form:
The main feature of
the reaction in style was the abandonment of the Popean couplet, in other kinds
of verse. Growing admiration of Milton was the immediate cause of the rise and
spreading popularity of blank verse. Johnson's "Seasons" was the
first important piece of 18th century. Somerville's "The Chase"
Young's "Night Thoughts" Blair's "The Grave" Dyer's
"The Ruins of Rome" and Akenside's "The Pleasure of the
Imagination" were written in blank verse, "The School Mistress"
of William Shenstone was the language and style Of Spencer Johnson's
"Castle of Indolence" adopts the Gothic machinery of the "Faery
Queene"
The Growth of the
Love of nature in 18th century poetry:
The growth of a
love of nature and of a feeling for the picturesque is one of the most marked
features in the history of English poetry between Pope and Wordsworth. Thomas
Parnell and Lady Coinchilsea show a genuine sense of natural beauty and the
charms of rural life. The Muse of the time voiced best to frequent the
coffee-house and the drawing roo . It was in the writings of Lamarkshire Mam,
Allan Ramsay ( 1689-1758) that the reviving love of nature became clear. In "The
Gentle Shepherd" (1725) which is a real pastoral poem the characters are
genuine shepherds and shepherdesses. John Dyer 1700- 1758) a Welshman's
"GrongarILill" is a piece of vigorous landscape painting. The love of
nature became prominent in poetry.
The Development of Naturalism:
The steady growth
of a love of nature and slogan "return to nature" provide the
increasing feeling of the picturesque and the charms of the country. Stress was
laid upon to bring poetry' back to nature and reality. William Blake was a
mystic and a visionary. He could be ranked along with romantic poets. His
"Songs of Innocence" and "Songs of Experience" expressed
the love of the country and marked him out as a leader in the naturalistic kind
of poetry. George Crabble wrote "The Village" "The
Newspaper" "The Parish Register" '"I'he Borough" and
"The Tales of the Hall". Crabble was not influenced by romantic
movement.
The Romantic
Movement:
By romantic, we
connote the principle of spontaneity in literature. It means the assertion of
individuality against the conventions of the schools. Romanticism was a part of
1 8th century movement for the emancipation of the individual. The great French
writer Victor Hugo described it as "liberalism in literature". Mr.
Watts-Dunton defined romantic revival as "the renaissance of wonder and
mystery". Keats' "Endymion" is romantic and Thomas Gray's
"Elegy" is romantic melancholy. Richards Hurd (1720-1808) in his
"Letters on Chivalry and Romance" maintained "Gothic
manners" for poetry. The most important ballad book of the 18th century
was Bishop Percy's "The Reliques of Ancient English Poetry". It
helped a lot in spreading romantic tastes. "An Essay on the Ancient
Minstrels" was the immediate inspiration of Beanies Thomas Chatterton.
"The Marvelous Boy" was spoken of in the history of the medieval
revival.
He died before he
had completed his 18th year. Thomas Rowley is a mythical Bristal priest of the
15th century. Macpherson's 'Ossianic' poems are filled with supernaturalism
steeped in melancholy. The desire to get back to nature is good feature of
these poems. They captivated readers of all classes, touched their sympathy,
set their hearts a flame. The revival of the romantic past came to its head
between 1760 and 1770. To this decade belong Hurd's "Letters on Chivalry
and Romance" "The Castle of Otranto" and Percy's
"Reliques".